Attention Restoration Theory
Attention Restoration Theory (ART) was developed by Rachel and Stephen Kaplan and theorizes that natural environments can restore attention exhausted by other work. It is also one of the few environmental psychology theories that specifically identify gardens as an example of natural settings. ART “proposes that the natural world is restorative, that nature has the potential for restoration from directed attention fatigue and from other demands, allowing reflection and recovery” (Gross, 2018). It accounts for the restorativeness of both nearby nature and nature at a distance, especially for mental fatigue or after a long period of focused attention. Nearby nature includes parks, street plants in urban areas, gardens (even in window boxes and balconies), or even views of nature from windows. Directed or focused attention can be defined as consciously “making the effort to attend to something,” such as working on a project or writing a report, while involuntary attention does not require any effort. Mental or attentional fatigue refers to the result of spending a long period of time focusing one’s attention on a task (Gross, 2018). Unlike an increased heart rate, for example, mental fatigue is not a negative physical stress response. On the contrary, people who are mentally fatigued can eagerly take action on new tasks as they come along.
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Being away refers to the idea that the environment must provide psychological distance and a change in scenery. By shifting from one setting to another, space for mental activity that would otherwise be used for directed attention is opened up. Ironically, nearby nature is not physically distant, but the main point is that the change of scene allows a departure from daily routine. This relates to ideas of retreat and escape. For people living in urban areas and big cities, natural environments definitely present a change of scene.
Extent signifies that the person needs to feel connected to elements within the setting. This means that the setting and the person need to be meaningfully interlinked. These elements also need to have a scope, the idea that it is seen “as part of a larger whole” (Gross, 2018). The environment must provide interest to the individual, or something to explore beyond just ‘first sight’. As miniature versions of large landscapes, Japanese gardens are exemplary models of scope because they offer a lot to explore. Whereas larger green spaces such as parks can achieve scope by their sheer scale and size, gardens can also afford scope through the intensity of connection to its gardener. Gardens can connect to people in many different ways, such as family history and links to other places, and by creating a sense of environmental identity. Environmental identity ""is the feeling of being a part of “something beyond the self”: "a sense of connection to some part of the nonhuman natural environment, based on history, emotional attachment, and/or similarity, that affects the way in which we perceive and act" (Gross, 2018; Olivos, 2014). Natural environments are great at building environmental identity through their breathtaking elements of life.
Fascination is the way nature can capture people’s attention and allow their brains to function without the use of directed attention while also not boring them. There are two types of fascination: soft and hard. Soft fascination is derived from the aesthetics of the environment. In addition to nature’s plants and living creatures, nature has a wide variety of shapes, forms, and activities that naturally fascinate people. This is a potential reason as to why natural environments are seen as fascinating and therefore restorative. The shape of clouds, colors of the sunset, ripples in the water, or the sound of rustling leaves attract attention without demanding directed attention or causing mental fatigue. Nature is aesthetically pleasing and requires very little mental energy to appreciate, which frees up mental space for reflection or exploration of thoughts. Fascination’s potential to be restorative definitely depends on the individual’s level of engagement with the environment or other needs. For example, people who work with trees daily would not find forest walks as restorative as people would who do not, and may find a coastal walk by the beach much more fascinating. The key thing with fascination is the “opportunity to let the mind wander” (Gross, 2018). Hard fascination is the “opportunity to be completely engaged in the setting, an intense engagement that leaves little room for reflection” (Gross, 2018). In the Kaplans’ studies during the development of ART, the evidence for the “attention-holding power of the garden” was considered one of the most beneficial areas of gardens in particular (Gross, 2018). People can forget about everything else in the garden, or even feel like time is standing still.
Compatibility refers to the idea that the environment itself, the activities performed in the setting, and the person’s needs and interests are all compatible with each other. There are many different ways for people to connect to the environment. For example, people can be actively part of nature as walkers, runners, or swimmers, they can be more passive observers, such as birdwatchers, they can be cultivators or caretakers, such as gardeners or beekeepers, or they can be people like hunters and fishermen. If the elements in the setting fascinate the person and provide sufficient information for action, compatibility can develop. Different people have different preferences for types of environments, which will influence compatibility. The ability and capacity for settings to be restorative can be explained by individual identities and experiences in places. Different people may be predisposed to favor certain environments. If individuals are exposed to a setting that “reflects their own identity,” the restorative effects are more likely to be positive (Gross, 2018). If the setting is not compatible with essential elements of the individual’s identity, the environment could be more distracting than restorative. Previous experience may also inspire future compatibility. Gardens provide gardeners with compatibility because there is a sense of authenticity and the feeling of making a difference, which is important for creating and maintaining environmental identity.
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In a world of constant networks and use of technology, directing attention and avoiding distractions can be very difficult. Physical rest through sleep, which allows consolidation of processing to be done during active periods, and dreaming, which is important for mental well-being, are two ways to recover directed attention. However, during working hours or leisure time, individuals need other ways to restore directed attention. Such approaches should require minimal demands on directed attention and provide exposure to interesting stimuli.
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ART identifies four key factors or requirements that environments have to be able to meet in order to successfully restore attention. All four of these factors are especially apparent in natural environments, and nearby nature is a main potential source of restoration. The four factors are: being away, extent, fascination, and compatibility.
Therefore, gardens can offer all four of the factors that make an environment attention-restoring. They provide both soft and hard fascination, which contributes to “the experience of gardening as an ‘attention-holding’ activity” (Gross, 2018). They also allow for compatibility with the gardener, and are spaces that create extent and the idea of being away. A Perceived Restorativeness Scale survey completed by 566 Austrian adults found that private gardens were rated as restorative, and that “enjoyment of the garden, satisfaction, and connectedness with it” were the factors that contributed most to its restorativeness (Gross, 2018).
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Exposure to nature does not necessarily have to be for long periods of time in order to have an impact. In regards to restoring attention or reducing stress, micro-restorative experiences with nature have been found to be very effective. Looking at green views through a window for as little as forty seconds can be considered a micro-restorative experience. Likewise, experiences of nature, such as hearing birdsong, can have an “energizing instorative effect on mood and energy, rather than a restorative one” (Gross, 2018). Instoration is more short-term, while restoration is a more long-lasting effect on the mind. The incidental elements of natural environments are definitely part of the attraction to gardens: simply being on an allotment, or even looking at the garden from inside a building or house, can have an instorative or restorative effect on the gardener.
Restoration can be found in a variety of locations, depending on factors such as the amount of time available to be spent, life stage, and social identity. Adolescents are more likely to seek exciting and engaging leisure activities that are physically distant from daily aspects of their lives. Restorativeness is also linked to the presence or absence of social relationships in the setting. To maximize the restorative benefits of a setting, people have to be aware of the environment that surrounds them, and this could entail a “complex chain of personal, psychological, and place processes” (Gross, 2018).
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References:
Gross, H. (2018). The psychology of gardening. Routledge.